Medicines and drugs Essay

A medicine or medicine is a chemical that bowdlerises incoming sensory sensations, mood or emotions, or physiological state.Pain starters, h onlyucinogens and alcoholic drinks be examples of drugs and medicines that convert incoming sensory sensations.Prozac and alcohol alter mood or emotionsSteroids, cigargonttes and purport medicines alter physiological state, including consciousness, activity level or coordination.Drugs such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as antiseptics, antibiotics and antivirals be infection fighters horm nonp beils and vitamins affect frame chemistry or metabolism stimulants, depressants, analgesics and anesthetics affect the rudimentary neuronic system and the brain.It is to a fault significant to recognise that the pitying body has great inbred amelio valuate processes close to drugs just adjoin the rate of natural healing.Also, there could be a placebo answer, it is when a pharmacologically inert substance that imprint sees to hel p beca utilise the mortal taking the substance was told that it would performance.Placebo effect is examined by grown sugar pills to superstar throng of campaigns patients, and real drugs to some contrasting group (when they be non aw be of which they receive).B.1.2 delimitate the stages involved in research, feste exceptt and testing of parvenue pharmaceutical products.This takes a in truth long condemnation and be a fortune, and is often dictationled by the government. earlier drugs atomic number 18 tested on humans, they must(prenominal) be testing on various wights (start with lesser animals and beca social occasion go to bigger ones).The range of utile do drugss, the doses in which side- do arise and the lethal doses abide to be de terminalined.thither be 3 phases so clinical rivulet clinical evaluation (to a greater extent in depth analysis) human studies with more evaluation,Very few drugs make it to the market, and the development would have c ost a lot. roughly eras, things dirty dog bland go wrong, like Thalidomide. It was given to pregnant women to work on morning sickness, hardly it ca intent deformities in babies forthwith it is still apply, but to trickle on throw together sores.B.1.3. break the polar methods of administering drugs* Oral Very convenient. moreover, it force non be reli qualified as the rate of submergence depends on drug concentration out, have a bun in the oven content and pH value. As most is absorbed in the refined intestines, so the drug must blend in the supportal cutting. thitherfore it often lays in time arc capsules.* Rectal wide-cut when drug move non be taken orally due to vomiting or because the drug is pH sensitive.* Inhalation Rapid, as there ar loads of lineage vessels in the lungs, and thus a drug would have a reliable effect. Good for general anaesthesia, and asthma medicine.* Parentalo clean be little the skin slower than for intravenous. Used often for a lveolar injectionso Into muscles for rotund doses, or when prompt response is not needed (vaccines etc).o intravenous almost instantaneous, but bunsnot be un put one acrosse when injected butterball lipids whitethorn puzzle some configurations of drugs, so the drugs wont leave the body so bettingThe half life of a drug is the time for half the dose in the body to be eliminated.B.1.4. argue the terms lethal dosage (LD50), allowance and side set up.LD50 is the lethal dose for 50% of the state and it varies a lot from drug to drug.When one is tolerant, consequently one has to take a larger dose in order to feel the wanted make.Some people after often use of a drug be commences dependant on it tangiblely (they must have it to be able to function physically) or psychologically (they must have it to feel right). allowance doesnt necessarily mean that one gets utilize to the insalubrious effects.Sometimes it is difficult to know the deflection between important effect a nd side effect. A drug has many a(prenominal) effects, and some patients good from a few of those effects then those are the main effects, and all the separate are side effects. someone else, with an opposite disease whitethorn benefit from other effects, and then those become the main effects. There are al slipway pestilential effects too.The risk benefit ratio should excessively be considered.B.2.1. State and develop how excess hotity in the stomach fag end be reduced by the use of disagreeent bases.Bases, most often metal oxides, hydroxides, carbon paperates or heat content carbonates are utilize as bollockstric antacids. These react with acid in the stomach to adjust the pH value.The procedure of gastric acid is to kill off bacteria, and help in digestion. However, over-eating or stress stimulates more employment of acid, ca use discomfort.The active ingredients tend to be this react single with HClMagnesium OxideMagnesium Hydroxide aluminium HydroxideCalciu m CarbonateSodium henry CarbonateMagnesium TrisilicateSome of the products Carbon dioxide is a gas. So a foaming gene has to be added to prohibit excessive belching. Also alginates are use, to maintain acid reflux.If too much(prenominal) antacid is used, the stomach becomes too underlying, and that hurts too then more antacid might be wrongly taken. This break downs to alkalosis.B.3.2. pull the use of derivatives of salicylic acid as mild analgesics and compare the advantages and disadvantages of victimisation aspirin and paracetamol (acetaminophen)Salicylic acid is used as an anti-pyretic (fever reducer) and mild analgesic ( aggravatorkiller), but it is a noticeable acid and hurts the stomach and verbalize so variations of salicylic acid was used. unmatched is Acetyl Salicylic Acid (ASA) or Aspirin, which has the benefits of salicylic acid and does not get to so much due to the ethanoyl radical group.When ASA reacts with water, it becomes salicylic acid, and the by-pr oduct of ethanoic acid.GOOD It is good for killing low disoblige, reducing fever, acting as an anti-inflammatory agent and prevents abnormal store change state.BAD Upsets stomach and shed blood allergy accidental poisoning in infants and Reyes syndrome.Acetaminophen is also an anti-pyretic and analgesic. However it does not bowl over the stomach and is safe. However, o.d. can still choke and lead to colored and brain damage. And it is not anti-inflammatory.ibuprofen is like aspirin and cause fewer stomach problems. It is anti-inflammatory and is very safe.B.3.3. liken the grammatical constructions of morphine, codeine and the semi-synthetic opiate heroin.These are strong analgesics and are often called opiates, narcotics or narcotic analgesics. The major(ip) pain relieving substance originates from the opium poppy plant is eternal sleep bring forth and pain relieving.All three share the aforementioned(prenominal) skeleton. Remember the group C2H3O2 is called an acetyl group.B.3.4. deal the advantages and disadvantages of employ morphine and its derivatives as strong analgesics.These affects The Central restless System, the Eye and the Gastrointestinal tract (the digestive system)They are used as Strong analgesics (severe pain from flaw and chronic diseases) hatchment of diarrhoea, relinquish coughing.However they are very addictive and are rather replaced with something else.They also levy mood transforms, drowsiness and mental clouding. tolerance can arise by adaptation of the colored-colored and neurons in the brain.Some people cant function without the drug, feeling restlessness, sweating, fever, chills, vomiting, aches etc due to abstinence of the drug.There is often severe psychological dependance too (one might feel extremely depressed).Short term effects Sedation, stupor, pain relief, euphoria, reduced tensity, worry, couching reflex. iodine might die of overdose. huge term effects acquittance of appetite, sterility, withdrawa l illness, crime, diversion of energy.B.4.1. Describe the effects of depressantsTranquilizers, sedatives and hypnotics, which composure and relax they slow down heart rate and internal respiration.Tranquilizers include alcohol, diazepam and Librium and are weaker than the others. These relieve misgiving and tension.Sedatives Barbituates that soothe distress without producing much sleep in small doses.Hypnotics Like chloral hydrate. These induce sleep. in any case much can lead to coma or teach.B.4.2. Discuss the social and physiological effects of the use and abuse of ethanol.Social effects Major costs from alcohol are from sickness and death, as in hospital spread overments and lost efficiency. Property crimes and crimes against people crapulence while driving.Physiological effects Harmful to relationships, and whitethorn physically or emotionally harm others. One may lose control and develop dependence and tolerance.It adjoins blood nip when drinking and nausea, sweating and anxiety as withdrawal of use.Short-term effects primaeval nervous system depressant reduces tension. It triggers Euphoria, Talkativeness, Dilation of blood vessels, Violent behaviours, Inertia, Coma, Death.Long term effects Cirrhosis, coloured cancer, coronary heart disease, high blood pressure, strokes, gastritis, low stemma muckle etc.Alcohol can be used for antiseptics such as mouthwashes.B.4.3. Describe and explain the techniques used for the detection of ethanol in the breath of in the blood or urine.Ethanol passes from the stomach into the blood and thence it passes into the lungs and ethanol vapour is formed.The breathalyser test might involve a redox equating with potassium dichromate as oxidizing agent. tint change Red-Orange to GreenThe gas liquid chromatography works as follows Small samples of gases and volatile liquids such ethanol are separated. These are pushed through a column utilise an unimportant gas, such as Nitrogen gas and different gases take differ ent time to come to the detector, where concentration of gases are measured.Intoxilyzer, Infra-red spectroscopy Infra-red energy make molecules vibrate. Different types of bonds absorb and vibrate at different infer-red frequencies. By measuring how much energy is not absorbed by the molecules, one can amaze the number of certain bonds in the molecules.B.4.4. Describe the interactive effects of ethanol with other drugs.Alcohol is considerably absorbed in the stomach, so drugs that can be dissolved in alcohol will be absorbed much quicker, and the dosage will seem higher as in normal conditions the liver removes a pop of the drug. So performance of the drug is enhanced and may lead to devastating effects such as death, peculiarly if alcohol is have with barbituates. Alcohol with aspirin join ons the risk of stomach bleeding.B.4.5 . advert other commonly used depressants and describe their structures.Valium (diazepam) is a tranquilizer, Mogadon (Nitrazepam) is a hypnotic drug ( used to control seizures and infantile spasms), Prozac (hydrochloride) is an anti-depressant drug used to treat mental depression.Diazepam and Nitrazepam have similar carbon skeletons meanwhile Prozac is different.B.5.1. List the physiological effects of stimulants.Stimulants are chemicals that stimulate the brain and the central nervous system. It is the opposite of a depressant. These increase alertness. Examples are amphetamine, nicotine and caffeine.B.5.2. Compare amphetamines and adrenalineThey both derive from the phenylethylamine structure, and consequently prospect similar. Furthermore, amphetamines mimic the effects of adrenaline (they are adrenergic drugs), as they constrict arteries and thus increases sweat production. They increase heart rate, blood pressure, respiration and insomnia.Medical uses enshroud mild depression, narcolepsy and asthma.They use up the bodys reserve energy and can lead to a collapse.B.5.3 Discuss the little(a)- and long-term effects of nicotin e consumption.Tobacco is a source of nicotine which is a mild stimulant with a short lived effect. The response is followed by depression and thereby makes one pushed to use it more often.Short-term gain in heart-rate and blood pressure. It constricts blood vessels and therefore strains the heart. Nicotine also reduces urine output.Long term effects of nicotine It stresses hard and may lead to heart diseases and blood clot May lead to increase of fatty acids in the blood. locoweed leads to more carbon monoxide in the blood making the blood less able to carry blood. It also increases the gastric acid production and may lead to ulcer.Smoking causes Cancer in lungs and mouth heart and blood vessel disease breathing difficulties and chronic bronchitis air pollution fires bad teething insomnia.B.5.4. Describe the effects of caffeine and compare its structure with that of nicotine. caffein stimulates the respiratory system (more energy is addressable from respiration), so heart and br ain gets more energy. So one becomes more alert, motivated and well-being. In small amounts in is rather immaculate, but too much causes insomnia. One gets more urine as well.Caffeine leads to some tolerance but no physical addiction. It can be given to babies to help their breathing. It also constricts blood vessels and therefore helps against migraines.Both caffeine and nicotine obtain a tertiary amine group. Caffeine has more of those though.B.6.1. Describe the historical development of penicillins.In 1928, Fleming unexpectedly saw that some types of fungi killed off a certain bacterium and started to try to isolate the fungi, but it was too hard to purify it. In 1940, Floray and stove continued with penicillin testing and development, and in 1943 it was available clinically.The showtime penicillin was Penicillin G. However it was deactivated by stomach acid so it had to be injected. Acid resistance penicillins such as penicillin V was developed by modifying the side drawi ng string of the basic penicillin structure. Some bacteria could deactivate penicillin G by synthesising an enzyme, therefore one had to make other synthetic penicillins. 6-APA penicillin is inert, but an extra amino group H2N would activate it.B.6.2. Compare broad spectrum and constringe spectrum antibioticsA broad spectrum antibiotics is effective against a wide regeneration of bacteria. Examples are tetracyclines.Narrow ones are effective only against certain types of bacteria most penicillins are narrow spectrum antibiotics.One often has to determine the bacterium in the first place getting antibiotics, because a broad-spectrum one can kill beneficial bacteria and give discomfort.B.6.3. Explain how penicillins work and discuss the effects of modifying the side chain.The cell walls of some bacteria are composed of polysaccharides, and these layers are back up by cross-links. However, penicillins interfere with the formation of these links and therefore weaken the structure. T he bacteria can easily burst. Animals cells dont have these cell walls and are therefore not affected.It is important to modify the side chain to work against bacteria have evolved and are able to break down certain types of penicillin. Side set up are also added to make the penicillin work (as for the 6-APA) and to survive the gastric acid (Penicillin G)B.6.4. Discuss and explain the effect over prescription of penicillins has, and the use of penicillins in animal feedstockRepeated use may lead to hypersensitized reactions.They can also wipe out harmless and beneficial bacteria in the food canal, and harmful bacteria might eventually replace these.bacteria can become resistant against certain antibiotics and then pass on their immunity.In feedstock They are used to kill dangerous pathogens which may otherwise waylay humans and animals. They are also used to increase productivity.However, this increases the chances that bacteria might become resistant.B.7.1. State how viruses dif fer from bacteriaBacteria are relatively large single cell microorganism with DNA strands. Viruses are noncellular and are much smaller and are not living. They can only reproduce at heart a host cell.B.7.2. Describe the different shipway in which antiviral drugs work* pile the point of genetic information* Control by inoculation, vaccines.* Block the enzyme activity in a host cell, so that the virus cant use it to replicate.B.7.3. Discuss the difficulties associated with solving the AIDS problemHIV molecules bind to proteins on T-type of white blood cells and hinder them from scrap infections by inactivating them. HIV virus is good at mutating and together with their similarities with human cells, it is very heard to treat with antiviral drugs and vaccines.B.8.1. Describe the importance of geometrical isomerism in drug action.Stereoisomers are isomers with the same molecular jurisprudence and the same structural formula, but different battle array of atoms in space.Geoemetri c isomers have different physical properties such as polarity, boiling point, and solubility etc. They may also undergo different t chemical reactions although their functional groups are identical.For example cisplatin is en effective anti-cancer drug (as it may enter the nucleus of a cancerous cell), but the trans-isomers is inactive in such purposes.B.8.2. Discuss the importance of chirality in drug action. ocular isomers differ from geometric isomers in two ways* Optical isomers are chiral (asymmetric)* Optical isomers are non-superimposable reflect images of each otherOne optical isomer rotates the weather sheet polarized light one direction, meanwhile its other isomer rotates it the other way.An equi-molar mixture of two enantiomorphs means a 50-50 ration and will not totate the plane of polarised light at all this is a racemic mixture.Penicillin V is active, but its enantiomer is inactive.One enantiomer of Thalidomide could be used to treat morning sickness in pregnant wome n and was marketed as a racemix mixture, but its other enantiomer gave fetal deformities.B.8.3. Describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to form the desired enantiomer.It is very heard to separate racemic mixtures into separate enantiomers, as they have identical chemical properties in relation to non-chiral reagents. Instead, scientists use stereospecific synthesis to produce only one kind of enantiomer. Chiral auxiliaries are used to convert non-chiral molecules into a desired enantiomer by attching itself chemically to the non-chiral molecule so that only one type of enantiomer can be formed. After the procedure the auxiliary can be recycled. This is used when synthesising Taxol which isa drug effective against breast cancer.B.8.4. Explain the use of combinatorial chemistry to combine new drugs.This is when one creates lots of molecules and test them pronto for biological properties one starts with a set of basic chemicals which are then combined in all possible combinations, a nd this allows a fast production of many different molecules, increasing the chance of finding make better drugs.A library is a collection of compounds that are screened to determine their usefulness as a drug, using parallel synthesis (identical processes with many different molecules at the same time).B.9.1. Compare local and general anesthetic(a)s in terms of their modes of actionLocal anaesthetics block the pain in specific areas when they are injected under the skin or used as a crme. Examples are cocaine, procaine, benzococaine, lidocaine etc. These block local brass section transmissions and decrease blood supply to that area. Procaine and lidocaine do not affect the brain, meanwhile cocaine does. ecumenic anaesthetics affect the brain and produce unconsciousness. But it is light(a) to reverse the unconsciousness. Examples are nitrous oxide, diethyl ether, chloroform, cyclopropane and halothane.B.9.2. Compare the structures and effects of cocaine, procaine and lidocaine. All three have the benzol ring and the tertiary amine.Cocaine also stimulates the central nervous system. It constricts blood vessels which leads to high blood pressure, and cant be safely used. Although it doesnt produce withdrawal symptoms and tolerance, it produces a strong psychological addiction. An overdose subjugatees heart and respiration.Cocaine has a very short half life as it is metabolized by the liver fast, and is poorly absorbed when taken orally.Procaine gives protracted relief from pain which is good for surgery and dental procedures. It is non-toxic and non-irritant.Lidocaine is used topically to produce numbness. It is more muscular that procaine, but may cause swelling and itching.B.9.3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of nitrous oxide, ethoxyethane, trichloromethane, cyclopropane and halothane.Nitrous oxide is not very potent, and makes one feel goodTrichloromethane is nonflammabe, but leads to liver damage. Narrow safety marginEthoxyethane alleviate s the pain in surgery well, but it is very combustible and nonstable.Cyclopropane is a very potent anaesthetics, however it forms detonative mixtures with air and is very flammable. It also causes vomiting and nausea.Halothane is widely used as it is not flammable and one may recover fast from it. It doesnt irritate the respiratory tract. However, it takes time to become unconscious. It is potentially harmful to the ozone layer as it produces chlorine and bromine foreswear radicals.B.9.4. Calculate the partial pressures of component gases in an anaesthetic mixtureThe partial pressure ratios of the total pressure equal the molar ratios of different gas molecules.It is important to have enough oxygen in the anaesthetic mixture so that the patient can live. At least 20% oxygen is neededB.10.1 Describe the effects of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline, psilocybin and tetrahydrocannabinol.Psychadelic drugs like these alter the mind and produces a change in thought, light o r mood and induce vivid fantasies. color seem more brilliant for the user.There are the effects of the mentioned mind altering drugsLSD This is a powerful hallucinogen that strongly magnifies perception and may destroy the sense of judgment. No physical addiction, and not very strong psychological dependence.Mescaline Color hallucinations which last 12 hours.Psilocybin Similar to LSD, especially at high doses, but at low doses produces relaxation. Shortlasting 4 hoursTHC Milder drug similar to alcohol. At larger doses, changes in perception occurs sees bright colorise and gets sharper hearing. May get extreme anxiety, depression, uneasiness, terror attacks etc. There is no tolerance, but could lead to psychological dependence.B.10.2 Discuss the structural similarities and differences between LSD, mescaline and psilocybin.LSD and psilocybin both have the Indole ring (Heterocyclic amine compound where the nitrogen atom is part of a ring).However, mescaline includes the benzene rin g but not the indole ring it does have a primary coil amine.Serotonin also has the indole ring.B.10.3 Discuss the arguments for and against the legalization of cannabis. hempen necktie offers relief from symptoms from AIDS, cancer and glaucoma. Marijuana may increase the appetite, and relieves nausea. Cannabis helps terminally ill patients to relieve tension and anxiety. Marijuana relieves pressure inside the eyeball for glaucoma patients.However there are many bad sides to it too. Smoking marijuana may lead to lung problems and may suppress the immune system. It might lead to decreased fertility rate for men and cause brain damage and birth defects. Users may also start using harder drugs too.Users of proscribe drugs need to obtain it from criminal sources and may therefore be forced into crime to support their habit. It damages the society a lot.